Mexico’s struggle for independence is a defining chapter in Latin American history, and the answer to the question who did Mexico get its independence from is Spain. Now, for more than three centuries, the territory that is now modern Mexico was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, a colonial administration imposed by the Spanish Crown. Which means the fight to break free from Spanish rule began in the early 19th century, culminated in 1821, and reshaped the political, social, and cultural landscape of the nation. This article explores the origins of Mexican independence, the key players involved, the military and diplomatic maneuvers that led to victory, and the lasting impact of ending Spanish domination.
Easier said than done, but still worth knowing.
Historical Background: New Spain Under Spanish Rule
When Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521, Spain began a period of colonial governance that would last until 1821. The Viceroyalty of New Spain encompassed not only present‑day Mexico but also parts of the United States, Central America, and the Caribbean. Spanish authority was exercised through a rigid hierarchy:
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- The King of Spain – ultimate sovereign, whose decrees flowed through the Council of the Indies.
- The Viceroy – the Crown’s representative in Mexico City, holding both civil and military power.
- The Audiencia – a high court that also served as an advisory body to the viceroy.
- Local encomenderos and hacendados – Spanish settlers who controlled indigenous labor and vast estates.
Colonial policies favored Peninsulares (those born in Spain) over Criollos (people of Spanish descent born in the Americas), mestizos, indigenous peoples, and Africans. Economic exploitation—especially the extraction of silver from mines like Zacatecas and Guanajuato—funneled wealth to Spain while leaving the majority of the population impoverished and disenfranchised. Enlightenment ideas circulating in Europe and the successful American and Haitian revolutions planted the seeds of dissent among educated Criollos who began to question the legitimacy of Spanish authority.
The Fight for Independence: From Grito de Dolores to the Plan of Iguala
The Spark: Miguel Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores
On the morning of September 16, 1810, parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang the bell of his church in the small town of Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato) and issued the Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”). His call to arms urged Mexicans to rise against Spanish rule, reclaim land from the gentry, and abolish slavery. Although Hidalgo’s forces were poorly equipped, they quickly swelled to tens of thousands, capturing cities such as Guanajuato and Valladolid. On the flip side, after a series of defeats—most notably at the Battle of Calderón Bridge in January 1811—Hidalgo was captured, tried, and executed. His martyrdom turned him into a symbol of the independence movement.
Leadership Continues: José María Morelos
Following Hidalgo’s death, José María Morelos y Pavón, another priest, assumed command of the insurgent forces. So naturally, morelos proved a more strategic leader; he convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813, which drafted the Sentimientos de la Nación, a document outlining a vision for a sovereign, republican Mexico with equality before the law, freedom of the press, and the abolition of caste distinctions. Consider this: under Morelos, rebel armies secured victories in southern Mexico, but internal divisions and relentless Spanish counteroffensives weakened the movement. Morelos was captured in 1815 and executed, dealing another blow to the rebel cause.
The Stalemate and the Rise of Vicente Guerrero
After Morelos’s death, the insurgency fragmented into guerrilla bands. One of the most resilient leaders was Vicente Guerrero, a mestizo commander who kept the fight alive in the rugged terrain of the Sierra Madre del Sur. Guerrero’s persistence kept the independence ideal alive even as Spanish forces appeared to have regained control of most major cities.
The Turning Point: Agustín de Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala
By 1820, political developments in Spain itself shifted the balance. A liberal uprising forced King Ferdinand VII to accept the Constitution of 1812, which threatened the privileges of the Peninsular elite in New Spain. Fearful of losing their status, many conservative Criollos and Peninsulares began to see independence as a way to preserve their own power under a new regime.
Enter Agustín de Iturbide, a royalist officer who had previously fought against the insurgents. In early 1821, Iturbide met with Vicente Guerrero and negotiated the Plan of Iguala, a compromise that promised:
- Independence from Spain.
- Religion – the Catholic Church would remain the sole faith of the nation.
- Unity – all inhabitants, regardless of race or origin, would be equal citizens.
The Plan of Iguala famously declared the three guarantees: Religión, Independencia, Unión (Religion, Independence, Union). Iturbide’s Army of the Three Guarantees marched triumphantly into Mexico City on September 27, 1821, and the Spanish viceroy, Juan O’Donojú, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, formally recognizing Mexican independence.
The Role of Spain: Colonial Power and Reluctant Withdrawal
Spain’s hold on Mexico was never purely military; it rested on a complex web of economic exploitation, ecclesiastical influence, and a racial caste system that privileged those born in the Iberian Peninsula. When independence movements gained momentum, Spain responded with:
- Military campaigns – sending reinforcements from Europe and attempting to crush rebel uprisings.
- Political concessions – offering limited representation through the Cádiz Cortes, which ultimately failed to satisfy Criollo aspirations.
- Diplomatic isolation – after the Treaty of Córdoba, Spain refused to recognize the new Mexican state for over a decade, leading to periodic skirmishes and embargoes.
Only after the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833 and the subsequent loss of its American colonies did Spain finally relinquish any claim to Mexico, signing the Santa María‑Calatrava Treaty in 1836 that formally ended hostilities.
Aftermath and Legacy: Building a Nation After Spanish Rule
The achievement of independence did not instantly bring stability. The early years of the Mexican nation were marked by:
- Imperial experiment – Agustín de Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor Agustín I in 1822, but his rule lasted less than a year before he was overthrown.
- Federalist vs. centralist conflicts – debates over the structure of government led to frequent coups and the eventual adoption of the Federal Constitution of 1824.
- Territorial losses – the young republic struggled to defend its vast borders, eventually losing territories such as Texas (1836) and later the Mexican‑American War (1846‑1848), which ceded present‑day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming to the United States.
Despite these challenges, the break from Spain forged a national identity rooted in the ideals of the Grito
